Experiment: Analysing molar mass of Aspirin Essay

Introduction In 1899 the Bayer Company of Germany introduced the ethanoate ester of salicylic acid naming it, ‘Aspirin’. Aspirin is an acid, it can be titrated with a base such as sodium hydroxide to the equivalence point. The following chemical equation describe the acid-base reaction that will be observed in this experiment. H-Aspirin + NaOH ——> Na-Aspirin + H2O (acid) (base) (salt) The above chemical equation is balanced as written. An indicator will be used to provide a way to visually determine the endpoint of the titration. Phenolphthalein changes from colourless to a faint pink while bromothymol blue changes from yellow to a faint blue at a pH of around 8. Aim To calculate the molar mass of Aspirin Hypothesis The chemical formula of Aspirin is C9H8O4. It can also be written as C6H5(OCOCH3)COOH. In this experiment, Aspirin, which is an acid, will react with sodium hydroxide, NaOH in an acid-base reaction to produce salt and water. This analysis makes use the fact that aspirin is a monoprotic acid and therefore reacts with NaOH according to the equation: Conclusion The experimental molar mass of Aspirin, C6H5(OCOCH3)COOH is close to the theoretical value. The difference between the experimental value and the accepted value is not really big. However, there are difference between the experimental molar mass of aspirin when using phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue as indicator. The obtained molar mass of aspirin when using phenolphthalein indicator is smaller than using bromothymol blue as indicator. The difference with the theoretical value is also less. Due to this difference, the percentage error when using phenolphthalein is smaller than bromothymol blue. Therefore, phenolphthalein is a better indicator in this acid-base titration reaction. This is because the final pH or the endpoint of titration lies in between pH range of phenolphthalein that is 8.2-10.0 and not in bromothymol blue which is 6.0-7.6 . This is the reason why phenolphthalein indicator is able to produce more accurate result than bromothymol blue. Evaluation There are some weaknesses that were detected throughout the experiment. Firstly, the volume of indicator are not fix in this experiment. Using drops is not really suitable as it may distort the volume of indicator in this experiment. The difference may not really big but it still can affect the final result. Secondly, the mixture of aspirin, C6H5(OCOCH3)COOH and sodium hydroxide, NaOH is not stirred during the titration. This may produce uneven and not uniform result as the NaOH is not totally mix with the aspirin. The neutralization process may only occur on the surface of the aspirin solution. Having said that, this experiment is successfully analyzing the molar mass of aspirin. The experimental value is close to the theoretical value. Further improvement In order to improve the results of the future experiments, several ways can be implemented. Firstly, the volume of indicator use should be fixed instead of using drops. By using this way, the level of uncertainty of the final results can be reduced. Besides that, the mixture of aspirin solution and NaOH need to be stirred throughout the titration process. More uniform results can be obtained by implementing this method.

Development of the Periodic Table

It’s a rarity that we should come across a laboratory, classroom, chemistry textbook or lecture theatre that doesn’t contain a periodic table of the elements. It required the immense research and determination of the scientist Dmitri Mendeleev to show us that all elements followed a natural form and provided us with the first decent periodic table. There are 111 elements recognised today by IUPAC and they are arranged in the periodic table in horizontal groups and vertical periods.The eight groups consist of the alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals, the transition elements, metalloids, non-metals, the halogens and the nobel gases. The development of the periodic table first began with Antoine Lavoisier. His job as a privatised tax-collector helped finance his scientific research. He was the first scientist to classified the elements into four groups. These groups consisted of gases, metals, non-metals and metal oxides. In 1789, he proposed the Law of Conservation of Mass. This law stated that the mass of the products of a chemical reaction is equal to the reactants.This led to the â€Å"chemical revolution† and sparked interest amongst other scientists which, in turn, led to the periodic table that we know of today. In 1817 Johann Dobereiner saw became aware that the atomic weight of strontium was exactly half of the sum of the atomic weights of calcium and barium, which were elements that possessed similar properties. It took Dobereiner another twelve years to propose the Law of the Triads, after extensive research into finding the triads of the halogen group and the alkali metal group.In 1829 he proposed that nature contained triads of elements, with the middle element showing properties that were an average of the other two elements when ordered by atomic weight. Slowly, Dobereiners views began to be taken up by other chemists who tried to complete the unfinished triads, as further knowledge of the elements was gained. Dobereinerâ₠¬â„¢s triads played an important role in Gmelin’s Hand Book of Chemistry, but besides their importance in this publication not much notice was taken of the triads until much later on.The first scientist to arrange the elements in a periodic system was not actually a chemist, but a geologist. Beguyer de Chancourtois proposed a three-dimensional representation of the list of known elements wrapped around a cylinder in a helical graph. Elements that appeared on the same vertical line on the cylinder had similar properties. His helical graph also contained compounds and ions as well as elements so Beguyer de Chantcourtois’ work was disregarded until the work of Mendeleev.In 1862, John Newlands wrote a paper in which he arranged the fifty-six known elements into eleven groups based on similar physical properties. He noted that many of the elements with similarities differed by some multiple of eight in their atomic weights. Newlands found his work unpublished by the Royal S ociety as there were many criticisms made about his classification of the elements. John Newlands left no places in the table for undiscovered elements which altered the flexibility of the scheme.He didn’t evaluate the best values for the atomic weights, which was a serious omission according to Mendeleev. Some of the elements didn’t obey the scheme, the metals Mn, Ti and Fe aren’t of any resemblance to the non-metals P, Si and s which are placed eight elements before them. He was so convinced of his Law that he tried to force the elements to fit into this system Newlands believed that the system of the octaves would remain valid despite the number of elements that should be discovered. His work was ignored and forgotten until the work of Mendeleev had become famous.Both Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer produced similar results concerning the periodic table even though they worked independently of each other. Meyer constructed an abbreviated version of the peri odic table, with only half if the known elements included. Meyer did not separate the elements of the sub-groups and main groups as Mendeleev did, but he did include the transition metals. Meyer had already predicted that there were undiscovered elements that would fit in his system, and so he left vacant spaces for them to be added to the table as they were discovered.Meyer stated the Law of periodicity in 1868 which stated that ‘The properties of elements are largely periodic functions of their atomic weight, Identical or similar properties recur if the atomic weight is increased by a definite amount which is at first 16, then about 46, and finally 88 to 92 units’ Although Meyer’s table wasn’t used due to lack of certainty and flexibility, his colleague Seubert, from the University of Tubingen, republished his first papers in 1895, the year of Meyer’s death, so that students would be reminded of Meyers importance in the development of the periodic system.Dmitri Mendeleev published his first periodic table in 1869. He arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic weight. Mendeleev created cards, with each elements symbol, atomic weight and its physical and chemical properties written on the cards. When these cards were arranged in order of increasing atomic weight then a table of the elements was formed which gave rise to the periodic table of the elements. There were gaps present in the table but Mendeleev didn’t see this as a problem. Instead he believed correctly that the gaps insinuated that elements were yet to be discovered .From these gaps, he was able to predict accurately the physical and chemical properties of the undiscovered elements which he called eka-alumium, eka-boron and eka-silicon. The prefix eka- means similar to. He predicted that ten undiscovered elements existed and seven of these ten were discovered. Some say that his work and research was so brilliant because he wasn’t aware of the previous work done by Beguyer de Chancourtois, Dobereiner and Newlands. He didn’t accept the values for atomic weight without questioning the values.If the element did not fit into the scheme, he simply changed the weight and re-positioned the element in a group where its chemical and physical properties were more suited. He also made some of the periods longer to accommodate what we now know today as the transition metals. Mendeleev’s table is arranged in rows and columns. The elements that we see today in a horizontal period were shown on his table in vertical columns and vertical groups were shown in horizontal rows. Below is an example of the periodic table of Dmitri Mendeleev.Lord Rayleigh discovered a new inert, gaseous element in 1895 called argon. Although he knew of argon’s existence since 1983, it took him over a year to actually isolate the gas. Along with his colleague, William Ramsey, they noticed that this element didn’t fit into any of the known periodic groups. Ramsey made a suggestion that a new group should be formed and placed between chlorine and potassium in the periodic table. It was grouped with helium and a new family of elements was formed. Ramsey also correctly predicted the properties and identification of neon.These inert, gaseous elements were labelled as the ‘zero’ group because of the zero valency of the elements. They were also called the inert gases for many years because they almost completely lacked in any chemical reactivity. It was only when Neil Bartlett in 1962 successfully made a compound which included the element xenon, that the group became known as the noble gases. It was found that xenon bound chemically to oxygen and fluorine and so it showed that there is indeed, limited reactivity in this group of elements. Between the ears of 1911 and 1914, Henry Moseley established the atomic numbers of the elements in the periodic table. This atomic number refers to the number of elect rons in a neutral atom. He discovered the atomic number by using an experimental procedure which involved each element producing X-rays. He noticed that as the atomic weight increased, so did the energy of the X-rays. He didn’t understand this until he assigned numbers to the elements. This was a breakthrough in the development of the periodic table and gave rise to a periodic law.This law states that ‘The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number’. This Law was better than that of Mendeleev. When Moseley arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic number instead of increasing atomic mass then the irregularities that existed in Mendeleev’s table were gone. It is because of Moseley’s work that the periodic table that we have today is in existence. The final crucial change to occur in the period table of the elements came about from the work of Glenn Seaborg in 1940.He discovered the transuranium elements 94-102, sta rting with plutonium. A year later, Seaborg and his team discovered the isotope plutonium-239. He found that this isotope could be used to construct a nuclear bomb due to the isotope being fissionable by bombardment with slow neutrons. The amount of the plutonium-239 was very little so he began working on how to increase the abundance of the isotope. This research led him to join the Manhattan Project to make bombs for the U. S. Army.When the war ended he began focusing on the other trasuranium elements. Seaborg noticed that the heaviest elements were placed in the main body of the periodic table and he made another change to the table once again. He removed these heavy elements and placed displayed them separately from the main body of the table. He named the elements the Actinide series. As well as identifying the transuranium elements, Seaborg and his team brought to light more than 100 isotopes of the elements in the periodic table.Seaborg received the honour of having an elemen t named after him in appreciation of his extensive research into the periodic table. This element is named seaborgium (Sg). A transition metal is one which forms one or more stable ions which have incompletely filled d orbitals. Members of the transition elements and their compounds are good catalysts, probably due to their ability to change oxidation state. In the case of transition metals, they act as good catalysts because they are able to adsorb other substances onto their surface.The 38 elements occur in groups three to twelve, and it is their valence electrons that occur in more than one shell that cause them to have many oxidation states. Most of the transition metals take a coloured form, as do some of their ionic compounds. Because of the electrons in the d subshell, they are separated into different energy levels, causing the elements to absorb the frequencies of white light. Hence they appear to be coloured. The discovery of new elements, largely due to research in radioa ctivity, has had an appreciable impact on the development of the periodic table.The discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by Henri Becquerel inspired Marie and Pierre Curie to devote themselves to researching this area of chemistry. They succeeded in isolated radium and polonium just two years later. Marie measured the radiation given out by compounds of uranium and noticed that there was a similar radiation emitted by thorium compounds. During this time, she made the unexpected discovery that pitchblende contains a miniscule amount of an unknown radiating element. Pierre realised the importance of his wife’s work and joined in her research.Over the next year they found two new elements and began work on isolating them so their chemical and physical properties could be established. The third radioactive element was found three years after the discovery of radioactivity when actinium was separated from pitchblende by Debierne. The discovery of these three elements and radon were not the only ‘new’ elements found. Approximately 35 more elements were discovered in the early twentieth century, but these were later identified as isotopes of elements that had already been discovered.The identification of these isotopes and elements give rise to the modern periodic table of the elements. Some would say that although the periodic table is informative and a great discovery, the table does have some limits. Questions were raised in connection with the nonexistence of elements heavier than uranium. There were two main questions raised: Was it possible for heavier elements to occur in other parts of the universe? Was the lack of these elements caused by the instability of heavier atomic nuclei?John Newlands was the only scientist associated with the periodic table to consider the possibilities beyond the limits of the atomic weights. He talked about its upper and lower limits and concluded that there was a simple association between the atomic weights and the ordinal numbers. Some scientists continued to leave vacancies ahead of hydrogen for the neutron, electron, alpha-particle or the hydrogen ion, even after it had been known that the order number was indicated by the number of protons in an atom of the element.So today we are left with a period table of the elements that looks like this. There are eighteen groups and seven periods along with the lanthanoids and the actinoids in a separate grouping underneath the main body of the table. The table is laid out in such a way that the electron configuration for each element is valid as you go across a period. The periods get longer in the periods 4 – 7 to accommodate their electron configuration with s, p, d and f sub orbitals.The periodic table that we have today is a valuable resource for means of education. It’s something that many people take for granted, not realising that it was built over centuries by many great scientists. The modern layout is easy to use and com prehend making the understanding of organic chemistry as a whole easier. Although there may be some doubts to the validity of the table, no one can deny the fact that this family tree of the elements is nothing short of a genius way to assist in the teaching and learning of chemistry.

Final case Analysis for Richardson Drilling Essay

Final case Analysis for Richardson Drilling - Essay Example After some months, when Jacob took over as the sales person in Latin America, he discovered certain facts by going through files of the earlier sales representatives. The Latin American area under Jacob also included some US territory and when Jacob went over the old reports, he noticed that quite a few US companies had stopped purchasing Richardson equipment; there was no apparent explanation for these customers to have moved away from Richardson. After some enquiry with these clients, Jacob discovered that these companies had suffered accidents, almost seven years back, due to a failed liner from Richardson. However, in spite of the companies complaining to the sales rep and the fact that Richardson’s President had also visited, no corrective measures had been taken. In all the above three cases sited here, the common factor is that Richardson has taken advantage of the less restrictive rules (compared to US) in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and other Latin American countries, to bribe, and push substandard supplies, which they would not be able to sell inside the US or to other countries, for example in Europe, who would have strict quality regulations. So, these are ethical issues. Though Jacob had not reacted about the bribes, he was morally upset by the loss of lives and decided to talk to his boss, Hillary; she thanked him for the information but advised him to keep quite till the seven year statute, regarding limitations, was over. As recourse Hillary also said that in case this became known, then Richardson would download the inventory on Venezuela or Brazil where laws were less restrictive. Both these again were ethical issues. Sometime after, Jacob went to finalize a deal in Mexico with ARMCO; the deal was for $50 million and after it was signed Jacob again bribed an ARMCO person with $50 thousand. Hillary congratulated Jacob and promised him a bonus and a probable promotion. Both of these again raise ethical concerns. While all these

Case study analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

Case study analysis - Essay Example Many foreign business people were encouraged to invest in Russia and a privatisation programme was introduced, as well. The economic reform policy led to high inflation rates in 1992 and the succeeding eight years. The national output fell by almost 20 per cent in 1992 leading to increased unemployment rate in the same year. There was a huge government deficit in 1992 rising from 1.5 per cent in the first quarter to 15 per cent in the last quarter. The economic growth rate slowed down in 1993 until 2000 where the economy almost realised full recovery. Inflation may refer to the general increase in prices of commodities in an economy. Following the introduction of the reform policy in 1991, Russian economy experienced a hyperinflation in 1992, which amounted to 1527 per cent. The reform critics argued that the Russian economy was very rigid to adopt the mixed economy system. They added that the increased rate of money supply of 600 per cent contributed to the increased inflation rates. When the government abolished the price controls, the monopoly producers hiked the prices of their products. The consumers, on the other hand, could not afford the goods sold at high prices and this lead to a huge decline in demand. The forces of foreign investors lead to some local producers escape the industry and, as a result, there were huge shortages of commodities in the market. Consequently, the decreased supply levels led to increased prices of commodities, such as food and clothing (Leitzel 213). The rate of inflation rose from less than 200 per cent in 1991 to more than 1400 per cent in 1992. In 1993, the inflation rate fall drastically to around 300 per cent and reduced gradually to a value below 10 per cent in 1997. Despite the financial crisis in 1998, the rate of inflation remained constant until 199 when it rose with a small per cent. Since 2000, the rate of inflation has remained below 15 per cent until 2008 (see the blue curve). The real GDP declined

Societal role in advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Societal role in advertising - Essay Example This role can be both a reflection on the society or the probability of what is expected by the society in future. Recently, a range of companies have picked up advertising styles that incorporates social dimensions (Drumwright 71). This is attributed to the fact that the society is experiencing a lot of changes through the effects of fatal diseases like HIV/AIDS, cancer and lifestyle diseases. In addition, the third gender; homosexuality and immoral behavior like rape and drug abuse have had a huge influence on how adverts are framed nowadays. In real sense, marketers have no choice but frame their product adverts in a manner that can indicate a solution to what the society’s trends demand. For instance, in relation to HIV/AIDS, marketers already understand teenagers are sexually active and there is little they can do to change it. Therefore, the best solution they can offer is provide means that can help in reduce the spread of this deadly disease like through the use of con doms. This indicates how a society dictates how adverts frame the products (Drumwright 73). A society has power in dictating what they certainly expect from manufacturers. This means that every trend and lifestyle creates a problem that manufacturers are tasked with to solve as quickly as possible. Literally, a societal role is creating problems that adverts have to make sure they frame it in a manner that displays a solution. Through such problems though, companies come up with breakthrough innovations that turn out to be huge cash cows.

The Role of Emotion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Role of Emotion - Essay Example The emotion-focused assessment and following therapy follows a process, the two main processes being, interpersonal factors, and emotional cycles. Functional assessment has derived from the applied behavior paradigm. In this context functional means the cause of behavior (Carbone & Zecchini, 2008). The process establishes the function, or cause, of the maladaptive behavior before developing an intervention. This intervention is created from the hypothesized function of the maladaptive behavior. If the intervention is unsuccessful in establishing the function then it is very likely that the results will be ineffective in changing the identified maladaptive behaviours (Starin, 2007). These two therapies though from different psychological schools of thought, and therefore have many differences, nevertheless have several similarities as well. Emotion-focused therapy is a structured, short-term therapy, created in the early 1980s. It is historical based in client-centred, gestalt and existential theories. Client-centred therapies are from the humanistic paradigm, they are non-directive, do not search for interpretations, and center on the client actualizing their potential. Gestalt therapy is based on the theory that the brain is holistic, but that 'getting a whole consistent picture and seeing what the structure of the whole requires for the parts' (Wertheimer, 1959, cited in Gestalt Theory, 2008, p.1). Existential therapy stems from the belief that people are on their own in the world. Therefore, people form their own meanings and values, and have the power to make their own choices. For this reason, every individual is responsible for his or her own happiness. Emotion-focused therapy also has an extensive background in attachment theory, which gives the therapy a broader and more in depth understanding of the client's needs and the problems they are experiencing due to past or present family relationships. The approach focuses on how a person is responsible for their own response patterns to emotional processes. A large amount of research has assessed that this therapy is very effective. Research has shown that between 70-75% of clients who enter into emotion-focused therapy will go into recovery and that nearly 90% will significantly improve (ICEEFT, 2008). Greenburg (2004a) states that emotion can be perceived as a form of information processing which is fundamental to a person's survival, and their ability to adapt to the world around them. Research has shown that emotion can improve memory, help to focus attention, and may influence cognitive processing. In addition, emotion can regulate behavior and help to develop healthy attachments. These processes influence why people will perform certain activities and behaviors. It is not just a result of their beliefs and value systems alone, but also because it makes them feel good or bad. Humans seek to control these feelings by trying to maximize the good feelings and minimize the bad ones. The reactions to these pleasant or unpleasant feelings and the attempt to control them are a person's motivation for action and change. Moreover, these emotions are used to evaluate situations that enhance personal well being and happiness, rather than because they are rational or right (Greenburg, 2004 a). Therefore,

Review Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Review Questions - Assignment Example On the other hand, the scanners are available that can scan bulky documents such as a whole book with high quality. These peripheral devices have impacted a lot in the world of business uses computers. Q # 2 – Computer Hardware Development It is expected that in the next ten years the hardware would be developed to support and enable the disable individuals for using the computer technologies. The hardware could include the peripheral devices so that the blind and deaf individuals can interact with the computer. Therefore, the standard peripheral devices i-e keyboard and mouse would likely to become obsolete and their dependency would be eliminated. The existing hardware technologies and devices would expect to be more effective and powerful in terms high speed and capacity. It is likely to happen that the hardware development organizations would work on the wireless devices to make them standard or norm for almost every business. These all hardware would facilitate the users to use the computer systems in more easy way with more effective manner. Q # 3 – Types of Computer System The computers are turning out to be more powerful with passing time in terms of high computing speed, increased storage capacity of data, and the capability to execute a number of diverse functions and purposes, for example, the computers are capable of transmitting voice and video communication regardless of physical distance. Moreover, the computers are growing to be more physically lesser in size, faster in speed, inexpensive, more reliable, easy-to-use and user friendly through a Graphical User Interface. These characteristics of the computers are categorized into three diverse computer systems include: the mainframe computers, midrange computers and the micro-computers. Q # 4 – Software Usage in Business There are diverse software packages that a business may require to use them in the office but this particularly depends on the nature of the business. However , the essential software package for survival of any business is Word Processing, Spreadsheets, PowerPoint, Outlook or e-mailing and Web browser. The Word processing allows the user to write or type a formatted text and the spreadsheets allows the users to perform calculations and decision making by analyzing the data which might be essential for any business. Formal presentations are a significant aspect of a business; therefore, the business can use diverse software such as PowerPoint that can incorporate animation, sound, graphics, charts etc. The Outlook can be used for emailing to communicate with internal and external users; moreover, the users can schedule meetings by inviting other users. The web browser is essential for utilizing the facility of the internet – a sea of information, moreover, the users can also access the intranet and extranet with the use of a web browser. Q # 5 – Future Software Packages As I have mentioned above that the hardware would be de veloped keeping in view the disable individuals, the same is the case with software would also be in accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The future software applications would facilitate the users to diagnose and resolve the issues on their own or update themselves automatically when the next release or patch is available. The upcoming software packages would be inter-operable and manageable because of the availability and adaptability of open source format standards. It is

1st Law of Performance, Eotional Inteligence, Issues in Managing teams Assignment

1st Law of Performance, Eotional Inteligence, Issues in Managing teams - Assignment Example Individuals’ gut reactions are the drivers of their decision making, which means that how they perceive other members of the group will dictate their performance. At my current workplace, this law was put into practice during the execution of a project plan. The team manager immediately set about managing commitment networks between members of the project team, even before the project began. He was obviously trying to control how the project occurred to members of the team by introducing us to one another and asking us for the parts of the project that excited us most (Zaffron & Logan, 2009). After discussing the project, most of the members began to respect one another’s expertise as we realized we had been chosen for specific tasks. One important aspect of this first law is the team members’ emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence can be generally defined as an individual’s ability to perceive their emotions and those of their team members, as well as ability to control their own emotions and evaluate them (Hicks & Bone, 2010). While some contend that EI can be strengthened and even learned, there is also a belief that it is inborn. Emotionally intelligence can also be more specifically defined as a social intelligence subset that involves an individual’s ability to monitor their own, as well as their fellow teammate’s, emotions and feelings. It is also a measure of how they are able to discriminate among these feelings, and to use the results as a guide to their decision-making. There are four principle factors that determine an individual’s EI, including emotional perception, reasoning ability using the perceived emotions, ability to understand these emotions, and abi lity to manage them. In the contemporary organization, emotional intelligence is important during meetings (Hicks & Bone, 2010). Emotional intelligence of meeting’s participants enhances the careful planning and skilful execution of the

Science fiction has less to do with science and more to do with an Essay

Science fiction has less to do with science and more to do with an endless reworking of the human condition - Essay Example Science fiction has a lot of admirers around the world. It is widely discussed and paid much attention to. It is a kind of innovative representation and reconsideration of human conditions. In accordance with Jules Verne called, his novels were â€Å"voyages extraordinaire†, and H. G. Wells was writing in the field of â€Å"scientific romance.† It is rather difficult to understand the main idea of the authors of science fiction. On the one hand, they are focused on discussing allusions or different fake representations of different issues (Westfahl and Slusser, 2002). On the other hand, they follow the laws of the human nature development. Very often the main characters of science fiction novels are humanized. They are often very much concerned about human feelings, such as love, friendship etc. and this makes science fiction more attractive. Very often these stories gain approval of a various audience. For example, women who usually do not like such reading can also re ad these stories and not be afraid of different interesting or unreal creatures. In any case, different readers have their own chances to underline what they want to read in the science fiction books. Publishers are printing what readers will like for sure. There is no doubt that the authors of science fiction books introduce an innovative vision and creative ideas. It is surely a literature of change. For example, in the novels by Isaac Asimov humanity is fighting against the fall of the Galactic Empire. This author made an attempt to popularize science. Thanks to his creative mind he managed to represent the issue of biochemistry in a popular manner. He followed his scientific logic and managed to represent it to the readers in a comprehensible manner. He wanted to understand a possible future of the generations that concerned human ability to rule their future empires. He turned his attention to so-called scientific sociology. In case mankind colonizes galaxy, it will be very

Revolution on British government and society Essay Example for Free

Revolution on British government and society Essay It is not so much the events of 1688 that constitute a revolution as the subsequent changes in the constitution that show a transformation in the nature and ideology of government. There was no internal uprising, no civil war and most importantly, the succession of William of Orange and his wife Mary to the English throne was authorised by a Convention, acting in lieu of parliament in the absence of King James II. Indeed it could be argued that this was not a revolution at all, if James departure is to be interpreted as his abdication. Contemporaries, keen to replace the unpopular, Catholic monarch with a man who was seen as a deliverer from popery and slavery, reasoned as such. In actual fact James never did renounce his claim to the throne. Fleeing London in the dead of night, he took with him The Great Seal, traditionally held by the monarch and dropped it in the Thames and he burnt the writs that were to call anew parliament. He would later attempt to recapture his crown, rallying support in Ireland to prepare for an invasion that was to fail. But whether or not this dynastic change, made by those who, in theory, did not have the authority to do so, is enough to deserve the title revolution, what cannot be denied is that this marks the end of the era of the absolute monarch. Williams Declaration of Rights, which was to become statute within a year, echoed Lockean ideas of sovereignty, supporting a parliament that was to keep check on the authority of the monarch and protecting Rights and Liberties of the people. No King or Queen thereafter would be able to rule as James or Charles had done before them. In the years following the revolution a system of government working through the authority of the executive Privy Council and the houses of Lords and commons, headed by the monarch soon evolved into a working body that formed the basis of what we still have for government today. By the 1720s the way Britain is ruled had been turned around, but the changes cannot be solely accredited to the events of 1688. When William invaded England he had European motives at heart. He was keen to avoid a union of France and England that would be a threat to the Protestants of the Northern and Germanic lands. He was aware of James unpopularity as a Catholic ruler of an overwhelmingly Protestant nation and he sought to take advantage of this to try and win allies. He expected to meet with resistance and had prepared and army of troops, but James was deserted by the little support he had to begin with in the face of danger, eventually even by his closest advisors and his own sister. William toured England for four weeks, propagandising himself as a saviour from James evil counsellors, who had challenged the laws, liberties, customs and religion and wanted to revive Catholicism. He arrived in London and in the absence of the monarch the city was occupied and ordered by his Dutch soldiers while a decision could be reached. It is important to remember that William never independently laid any claim to the throne; he had expected to meet resistance in England. He aimed to battle against what he saw as a catholic threat, which he was careful to stress as being on the part of James advisors and not the King himself, and although the impact that this revolution had was profound, it was not all part of a pre-ordained plan. What followed was an immediate crisis. The capital was under the order of foreign troops and the King had deserted. It forced the political nation to examine the constitution and find a solution. A Convention was called and a vote was taken to offer the throne to William and his wife Mary, daughter of the departed king on January 22nd 1689, only a month after James departure. It was a hasty political decision, pressure was felt by the presence of Dutch troops, but there was also a Protestant fear of James gathering support and returning, or claims being laid for his infant son, whom he had taken with him. There was resistance, the House of Lords initially voted against the idea, feeling they had sworn an oath of loyalty to James, that he was still their king, and that such radical action was not right. A monarch is not elective. The theory was that the monarch was granted his authority form God and man was not to meddle with His choice. There was no support for a republic, with the feeling that a firm figurehead was necessary to maintain order and a deep attachment felt for hierarchy and patriarchy. Yet to instate a new monarch seemed in itself to mock the whole principal of monarchy. Under pressure from the Commons and from William and Mary themselves and with no other solution, the Lords were finally swayed, their stance weakened by internal disunity and mistrust. Interpretation of the finer details of the theory of monarchy and nuances of vocabulary played and important role in this unique revolution, which, on the whole, was met with popular support. William and Mary had been put on the throne as an alternative to James II. Parliament had granted them this privilege and they were willing to allow parliament a more active role in government. The revolution had been almost ad hoc and there was sparse new ideology to implement, the Convention drawn up by parliament was effectively a reaction to the way in which both Charles II and James II had ruled and a call to protect the peoples ancient and indubitable rights. It was more of a written version of what was previously expected behaviour with little fundamental change to the relationship between legislative and executive powers specified. But William had to accept this as a code of practise from his parliament, recognising that even if the monarch had popularity and capability, he needed to work through the legislative powers. The monarch was required to call parliament to session, but this would be inevitable as William was only granted a years revenue. Parliament had the authority to oversee all public expenditure and so the monarch would always be dependant on them. Changes to the structure of government took effect gradually during the years following the revolution, but from the start the role of parliament was augmented, which initiated subsequent developments. They met for much longer sessions than before 1688, enabling a great deal more legislation to be passed, and allowing for Bills to be more thoroughly debated. Much of the legislation passed was still local or occasional in essence, such as permission to build a workhouse, but although this could be viewed as undermining the revolutionary nature of parliaments more prominent role, the fact that MPs were more available to take action on their electorates specific grievances, helped to ease the frictions between local and executive power as the nations political make-up was evolving. Although from a modern perspective these changes are viewed as progressing towards a more rational system of government, during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, people were often concerned about social stability which they believed was at risk with so much legal development. It was a commonly held view that life should be stable and predictable. People wanted to feel sure of their position, their income and their king and government. In an era where the poor always risked slipping into poverty after a bad harvest, increasing involvement in foreign warfare and frequent changes in the government, questions were raised about the permanence of law, and whether Common Laws of liberty and property, viewed by many as sacred, were at risk. But at court the belief that good government was upheld by frequent parliament, against the weakness of individual MPs or encroachment by the monarch led to the Triennial Act of 1694, limiting parliament to three years. Elections were held on average every two years and there were various amendments and contests in between. This Act was later replaced and the time extended to seven years, the advisors to the king often too easily influenced elections proved costly and short-lived parliaments. The Act shows parliament as uncertain of its own role, and is an example of a developing government that was evolving along its own path in the years following the revolution, more caused by what the revolutions changes allowed rather than what they intended. The development of the two key political parties, the Whigs and the Tories is another feature of this evolution of government. With three active parts to the government all being of equally weighted importance, and more frequent changes of personnel in parliament, there was more of a need than ever for politicians to associate themselves with a certain ideology and for Lords and MPs to support each other to push through Bills. William himself wanted to remain above the level of party, which he did, and indeed, there were members of parliament, more so in the House of Lords who chose to be independent and cast their vote on issues individually. But the solidarity of party was the most effective way of getting laws passed and King George himself, not many years later, was aligned with the Whigs, who although in the days of the revolution had been in favour of political progression, now came of as the monarchical party and there were suspicions of Jacobinism in the Tories. Religion was still a very important factor in politics, despite the Act of Toleration in 1689, which allowed non-Anglican Protestants to swear allegiance to the throne. There was still a widely held belief that religious homogony was key to social stability, but it had been the clergy that had shown the most resistance to William taking the crown, and with no clear heir in line for the throne the problem of succession and the possibility of a Jacobite up-rising prompted him, a Calvinist himself, to attempt to include Protestant minorities, especially those in Scotland and Ireland. Although the law did not make any exception for Catholics or Quakers, it did encourage a sense of tolerance that was benefited by both groups. The Quakers would be later allowed the right to practise in legalised meetinghouses, but Catholics still posed a threat, especially in Ireland, where the population was largely Catholic. After the Revolution, James had attempted to reclaim his throne, starting in Ireland, arranging support from France for the Catholic cause. But James lacked the leadership and resolve that he met in William when they met at battle in Derry and Enniskillen and he again escaped to France. The so-called bloodless revolution may have been so in England, but in both Ireland and Scotland the transition was not so smooth. Civil war in Ireland exhausted James supporters into defeat and in Scotland a series of highland wars lasted around five months in 1691, which initially started as a Jacobite up rising. William found Scotland impossible to manage. Although not dominated by Catholics, it was not predominantly Anglican either and James had more support here because of his familys close ties with Scotland. In the years following the Revolution, Scotland was only reluctantly part of Britain. She had her own laws and traditions, presided over by a Scottish parliament in Edinburgh, which declared even further independence with the abolition of the Lord of Articles, further undermining control from Westminster and making Scotland appear more of a threat. William would not be able to exert his Royal will through Edinburgh. But following a bad harvest in 1695, with many dying of hunger or fleeing to Ulster, Scotland realised the benefits of a closer union with England to involve herself in Englands efficient internal trade and lucrative colonial empire. The Act of union came into effect in 1707, dissolving the parliament in Edinburgh and instating peers and MPs from Scotland at Westminster. In England, the union provoked little reaction, but in Scotland it was bitterly opposed by many. Problems within Scotland were often a result of internal social divisions, most markedly between the highland clans and their more anglicised lowland neighbours, who had seen the union as a way to improve Scotlands economy. The death of Queen Anne in 1714 proved a difficult start for the union. The question was raised of the possible succession of her Catholic half brother, but with the Act of Settlement from 1701 forbidding any non-Protestant to sit on the throne, the Crown was inherited by George I. He faced a Jacobite uprising within the year, but his reign is largely characterised as a time of peace and relative stability after the turbulent post-revolutionary years. The Glorious Revolution had seemed on the surface to be swift, decisive and painless, yet the principals of change that as Burke claimed justified it as a revolution took years to really take shape. By the time of King George the role of monarch had been dramatically reviewed, no longer seen as a ruler from God, but as a figure head for a nation governed by a system of parliament, which relied on the mutual dependency of the two houses and the executive to abide by a sense of appropriate behaviour. Queen Anne was the last to use the Royal veto, something much exploited by the monarchs before 1688, the workings of parliament and the Privy Council had become more regular and thorough and a system of party politics had developed. The characters of William, Anne and George, who all failed to immerse themselves in domestic affaires and the extraordinary calibre of ministers at work during this time, perhaps eased the transition but it still remains that, while the revolution of 1688 had a profound and lasting impact on British society and government, the relationship worked both ways. The practical workings of British society and government were what moulded the developments after the revolution, developments that justified the glorious revolution to be called as such.

Inequality In Education Major Problems In The Society Education Essay

Inequality In Education Major Problems In The Society Education Essay Inequality in education is linked to the major problems in the society. The need for studies to be done to find ways of overcoming these inequalities is very inevitable. The means of mitigating these inequalities are important for the entire world. This is something of great interest due to the fact that children need quality education which is a pillar for a guaranteed future. Equality in education will to a large extent, guarantee every human being a better position in the society (Pardeck, 2008). Causes of inequality in education range from poor government policies, capitalistic nature of society to poor management of education systems. This paper is very important as it brings out major causes of inequality and how they can be addressed. (In the introduction you could have defined what inequality in education is all about.) Discussions on Inequality in Education The past studies show that inequality in education is something which is virtually everywhere around the world. Inequality in education can be linked to the low rate of development in the society. Social problems faced in different parts of the world also point to a certain degree, the inequality in education. Education inequality brings with it problems which governments and nations have tried to solve but in vain. (Dewey, 2009). Solutions have been put forth to address the inequality in education. There are a number of issues which play a major role towards the promotion of inequality in education. For instance, tribal and racial lines used in the provision of education have been a major cause of inequality. This has brought about disparity between individuals who get quality education and those are sidelined in the process. In some countries with different races, education is provided in a manner which is unequal. This is manifested when one gender is favored in terms of the education at the expense of the other (Pardeck, 2008). When education is provided along sex lines, some groups will receive better education than others causing inequality in society in terms of economy. Another important thing is with the provision of education to the disabled children and individuals the less fortunate within in the society. In the provision of such education, individuals with disabilities are often sidelined. This has become one of the outstanding causes of inequality with the kind of in education that is being provided. When the disabled are not given the education they do require, it becomes very hard for them to have equality in education compete on equal basis with the normal people. Inequality in education has been noted in very many parts of the world and hence it is necessary to come up with appropriate solutions (this sentence is just a repetition) It is only when education has been is provided equally on equal basis to all when, can societal goals and other developments tends get to be easily realized (Joseph Russo, 2009). A number of issues have been cited which appear to escalate this kind of inequality in education patterns within the society. To begin with. One of the issues is prejudice becomes one of the which is a major tools which promote inequality within a society, and more so when it has been is bred within the society itself. This is something which breeds hatred, and so soon most often all top management shall be have engaged in procedures and mechanisms which have been aimed at compromising the achievements of others (Dewey, 2009). This means that the kind of education being passed taught into to different groups shall will definitely be unequal. and some Some racial groups and families shall be are favored by the system more than others. Another thing is that the materials for educational purpose shall be are passed across in a manner which is misguided and which favors one group of individuals than at the expense the other. The current statistics (which statistics? Show them?) show that there is a lot of inequality in education within the country (which country is this?), and such has remains something which is highly irrefutable. Over the years, some indexes (what are these indexes, you are talking about? You will be better understood if you write as over the years, inequality in education in society is best shown by the living index of the people. The higher the living index, the better their education was. Try to link sentences,) had been founded found which would effectively determine the kind of inequality within the education. To begin with, the first approach had been through the observation of living standards within the society (Banks, 2009). Mark you, the people who had been receiving the best of education over the past years have been able to have better living conditions. For instance, eighty six percent of the individuals who received quality education have prestigious lifestyles and the re maining having better living standards and lifestyles (This is a statistic, where did you get the percentages from? You need to cite this sentence). Women who had not been given appropriate education due to the existing inequality leave in sheer poverty. This has been the case with the majority of the minority racial groups. Inequality in education is something which has continued manifest even in the present days. More and more women continue to face such hardships especially when trying to give their children better education which does them right (Joseph Russo, 2009). The fact that remains is that very many people have been greatly impacted by the inequality in education. It becomes a very significant and important issue of discussion in trying to come up with basic foundations and engagements through which equality can be achieved. This will ensure that all women get the right education which in the long run improves their living conditions. Impacts of the Inequality In real sense, there has been the presentation of journal materials which have been able to provide a lot of data describing the inequality in education. There are many journals that provide far enough data that talks about inequality in education. Such materials have shown how the education system in this country (which country? Dont show you are cooking, talk about the world if you are not sure) has been very unfair and how it has been torn apart through racial lines and thus leading to failed status with the education delivery (Just write about the journals citing them. Just write Author so and so says blab bla blaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). Because of this kind of inequality in education delivery, and which has been in place for quite a long time, majority of the unfortunate members of the society have been greatly impacted. This has led to failed living conditions in different parts of the world You are just repeating this point.(Banks, 2009). As well, it has become very hard to have some issues addressed such as with provision of medical services and care due to the fact that the providers of such services have been on the decline (How is this sentence related to inequality in education?). One outstanding fact is that the failed provision of education and accompanying inequality had been a major contributor to the problems in the country such as lack of medical personnel, nurses and other professionals (how). In that case, there have also been increased cases of insecurity due to increased poverty, and this has led to the proliferation of the number of criminals and robberies as well (always relate your sentences to inequality in education, like this one). Another thing is that there has been the increase if drug cartels in trying to search for ways and tactics of survival (sentence has poor grammer)(David, 2002). Basically, when there has been inequality oin education, chances are very high negative societal impacts will develop. It therefore becomes very hard to reverse such developments and as well making life very hard. This is something worth studying and coming up with solutions of addressing the inequality in education. When we talk of inequality of education, we shall see that the minority groups and wrong racial groups had always fell victims, and also the disabled had suffered in this mix of inequality (David, 2002). Basically, very many historical developments in the country (which country) have been able to define the groups and individuals who have become victims of inequality in education. It is the high time when we should change everything and come up with new foundations towards a long lasting equality in education. This will make sure that the best of living conditions have been realized for all members of the society. Basically, this issue of inequality is very important within the society as it defines the economic developments which shall be realized in the society. In that case, there should be measures and adoptions which make it possible to realize equality in the societys education system (Scovronick Hochschild, 2006). When this issue has been studied, the major causes of continued inequality shall be established, and from there it shall be possible to come up with foundations through which such weaknesses and loopholes shall be addressed, and from there realize long lasting impressions within an equal education system. What has to be agreed upon, and which proves the importance of this issue, is that any kind of education system should be viewed as something which has the power of determining the quality of life through which a given society shall live. The trick thus shall be in making sure that all the forms and functions of education systems have been appropriately monitored. This is important in ensuring that the best of education has been provided and as well make sure that all the societal issues have been addressed and as well deliver the quality of education onto the learner. The provision of appropriate education is necessary as this will make life much better for all the people within the society. This is the major reason why this issue is very important, and the reason all people within the society should be provided with the necessary tutors and learning materials which fosters quality education. Solutions to the Problem From the major studies which have been done on this issue, there have been a number of provisions and proposals which appear to adequately present solutions to this inequality in education which has been faced in the country. To begin with, the first thing which should be done is to have all schools and institutions to have tutors who are gender sensitive and who have no prejudice or favor towards one gender. Further there should be equal provision of learning materials and resources for all students regardless of the gender. This is necessary as it makes delivery of education equal and in the long run making it possible to disintegrate this kind of inequality in education which has been faced. The governments should put in place which protect girl child and make it mandatory for parents to educate all their children on equal measure. The importance of gender of gender education and equality in education should be promoted and encouraged in society.Another solution is in making sure that the government provides all the necessary financial support and material support so that there shall be any kind of inequality in the education system (Scovronick Hochschild, 2006). A proper education system can also be established which favors everyone so that the best of education is delivered. This is done by having all personnel being put in place so that the service delivery can be done in the best manner possible. It is hence the role of the government and states to fund education in a manner which promotes education provision, and by so doing making it possible to realize the best of goals in the education system. Conclusion Inequality in education is something which has been witnessed not only in this country but elsewhere. In real sense, this brings very many failed statuses in the society and the reason there should be the derivation of procedures which addresses such forms of inequality. Education is one of the major foundations of the society which promotes realization of economic goals and at the same time making sure that different individuals end up living better lives. This should be the dream of every nation towards the development of the economy.

To Save the Earth Essay -- Environment Environmental Ecology Essays

To Save the Earth I wonder how much the front yard of my childhood home is worth. Of course, it's worth less now than before. Once, a stately tree stood in each corner: a tall lilac, a pine, a cherry tree, and a droopy evergreen. My favorite tree lived in the middle. I never knew what kind it was, but every spring it blossomed in delicate pink, and on warm afternoons, I read under its canopy. The front yard no longer looks like that, however. My father removed the lilac bush because it made the lawn too difficult to mow, and cut many of the branches from the pine and my pink-flowered tree so that friends could park their cars on our lawn rather than getting ticketed for parking on the street. Eventually, my tree died from those wounds. But parking place or childhood haunt, what's my yard worth? In The Future of Life, Edward O. Wilson wonders the same about the whole Earth. Wilson, an advisor to various environmental groups and an award winning entomologist, acknowledges that his work requires the preservation of natural habitats, but also clearly feels a deep love for the natural world and a deep sorrow for its destruction. The first half of The Future of Life discusses the ways humans have harmed the environment, culminating with the idea that (like my dad and the yard) we have never been good for the Earth. "The trail of Homo sapiens, serial killer of the biosphere, reaches to the farthest corners of the world." Stopping here, Wilson would make a powerful and persuasive statement, but also a damning and uninspiring one, and the time it takes to impart the lesson dulls its impact. Fortunately, he goes on to explore why this damage is a tragedy, even to an economically minded person like my dad, and how to remedy ou... ...ve large areas of existing ecosystems, particularly rain forests. He argues that NGOs, effective as they have been, cannot save the earth by themselves, and emphasizes the need for greater government involvement. His ideas are firmly grounded in reality, however, and he acknowledges that "...local people with families to feed do not see the larger picture, and their needs cannot be met by a purely preservationist policy." Instead he advocates the economic exploitation of these ecosystems, but in a sustainable and ultimately non-destructive manner. His ideas and goals for the future show a balance necessary in any productive discussion about The Future of Life. If only he could have spoken to my dad about our yard. Works Cited: Wilson, Edward O. The Future of Life. 2002: Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Note: "Overyielding" appears as a single word in the text.

George Frideric Handel, the Famous Composer Essay -- Biography Biograp

George Frideric Handel, the Famous Composer George Frideric Handel was born in Halle, Germany, on February 23, 1685. He died in London on April 14,1759 and was buried in Westminister Abbey. Handel was one of the famous composers of the Baroque Period. This great composer was mostly known very well for his English Oratorio, particularly the Messiah. His trouble in his operas that he made lied within his uncertain temper and uncertain lack of tact. Handel first learned how to play from an instrument called a clavichord. This was like a forerunner of the piano. With the help of one of Handel's friend, they smuggled the instrument up to his attic in his house. Every night he would sneak up to the attic after everyone was asleep and he'd play it until he finally mastered it. The instrument could not be heard through the closed doors. When he was about twelve, he went to Berlin to study and while there he became well-known for playing the Harpsichord. Handel's parents wanted Handel to grow up in the profession of law, but music was in Handel's blood. When Han...

Market Opportunities for Soft Drink Companies Essay

Companies in the soft drink manufacturing industry are facing intense competition from the domestic and foreign brands,resulting in rising promotional costs and sinking profit margins. The consumers are going for real â€Å"value† for their money ,choosing drinks with better health value. Acurrent ban on sales of carbonates shows in the trend analysis given below:- {draw:frame} COMPANY GROWTH RATE Our company has shown a declining growth rate due to change in value perception and behavioural differences of consumers due to governmental bans all over the country. A public clarification would help us change the consumer perception. We need to make our core value based products to be fresh and relevant. We also need to sharpen our focus in this industry for maximum effect. {draw:frame} The trends of our own product offerings in the market are shown in the graph as below. Here we can notice a declining trend. {draw:frame} This declining trend can also be seen as a loss of our market segment to healthier drink options like fuit juices and water . It is quite evident in the graph given below:- {draw:frame} High sales volume in the water drinking segment and health juice segment shows that customer want better value and there perception is based on the changes in the microenvironment brought about by our competitors. There is a possibility of high â€Å"customer churn† in the future as our company’s sales decline. A 5 percent reduction in the customer defection rate can increase profits by 25 percent to 85 percent. According to the expectancy value model we ned to look into altering the beliefs about our brand which is effected by physical risk perceptions. Here we are seeing intense segment rivalry in our eange of products. Also there is lower entry barrier. The companies point of view needs to be visible on active information search. A customer’s decision to be loyal or defect from buying our products depends upon the large number of small encounters of the company which should lead to memorable customer experience.

Sheltered Instruction and the English Language Learner

Each twelvemonth, the United States has become more ethnically and linguistically diverse, with more than 90 per centum of recent immigrants coming from non-English speech production states. There are presently more than 10.5 million school-aged kids in the United States who live in places in which a linguistic communication other than English is spoken. Some of these pupils are fluid in English, while others are non ( U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 ) . Guaranting that pupils who are non fluid in English receive a quality instruction, and have a quality instruction, and achieve the same academic success as their English proficient equals, is an indispensable portion of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ( ESEA ) , as reauthorized by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 ( NCLB ) , ( U.S. Department of Education, 2007 ) . Harmonizing to the National Clearinghouse for Language Acquisition ( 2007 ) , informations submitted by provinces indicate that there are about 5 million pupils classified as Limited English proficient ( LEP ) through their engagement in a Title III appraisal of English Language proficiency. Harmonizing to the U.S. Census, LEP pupils are among the fastest-growing demographic group of pupils in the United States. While the overall school population has grown by less than 3 per centum in the last 10 old ages, the figure of LEP pupils has increased by more than 60 per centum in that same clip. While the figure of pupils with limited proficiency in English has grown exponentially across the United States, their degree of academic accomplishment has lagged significantly behind that of their linguistic communication bulk equals ( Echevarria, Vogt, & A ; Short, 2004 ) . These findings reflect turning grounds that most schools are non run intoing the challenge of educating linguistically and culturally diverse pupils good. This deficiency of success in educating ELLs is debatable because federal and province authoritiess expect all pupils to run into high criterions and have adjusted national and province appraisals to reflect new degrees of accomplishment and to suit demands under the NCLB Act of 2001. In add-on, the criterions motion, which is brushing the United States, has straight impacted the course of study and methodological analysis of K-8 ESL plans ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . Second linguistic communication scholars, every bit good as mainstream pupils, are now req uired to larn state-prescribed content course of study and show this cognition through public presentation on state-mandated trials. In add-on, TESOL ‘S ESL Standards for Pre-K-12 pupils has focused attending on the acquisition demands of ELLs by bridging the spread between traditional ESL course of study and the development of academic proficiencies ( TESOL, 2007 ) . Although these authorizations will hold a positive impact on the instruction of ELLs, they present instructional challenges to ELL and mainstream instructors who work with 2nd linguistic communication scholars ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . Once pupils have been identified as LEP utilizing state-approved ELP appraisal, their school territories must find the type of research-based Language Instruction Educational Program ( LIEP ) for K-12 LEP pupils that will function their pupils best. Title III requires territories to supply high quality LIEPs that are based on scientifically based research showing the effectivity of the plan ( National Clearinghouse for Language Acquisition, 2007 ) . One such plan that focuses on developing literacy in English is Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol ( SIOP ) . Sheltered Instruction ( SI ) is non a plan, it is a procedure of readying, direction and appraisal that is centered on clearly communicated content and linguistic communication larning marks. It is a procedure of learning content to English Language Learners in a mode that will guarantee their academic success while advancing their development of the English linguistic communication. Sheltered Instruction is delivered to ELL pupils through relevant, meaningful, and comprehendible agencies. There is no set method ( s ) on how to shelter direction ; nevertheless, the end of this procedure should be to guarantee that whatever construct or larning nonsubjective is being taught to the pupils is clearly understood by them. Therefore, the direction should be sheltered to the extent that it matches the pupils ‘ linguistic communication ability to understand the lesson. The term â€Å" sheltered † refers to the agencies for doing academic content comprehensible for English scholars while they develop English proficiency. Classrooms with sheltered direction learning methods may be used in self-contained ELL classes that contain both English talkers and English scholars. The schemes identified in SIOP are important for English scholars and may turn out good to other scholars as good ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . The SI attack must non be viewed as a set of extra or replacement instructional techniques that instructors utilize in their schoolrooms. The sheltered attack draws from and regards methods and schemes advocated for both 2nd linguistic communication and mainstream schoolrooms. The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol provides concrete illustrations of the characteristics of sheltered direction that can heighten and spread out instructors ‘ direction. SIOP organizes 30 characteristics of good lessons for English scholars into eight overarching constituents: Preparation, Building background, Comprehensible Input, Strategies, Interaction, Practice/Application, Lesson Delivery, and Review/Assessment. These constituents emphasize the instructional patterns that are critical for ELLs every bit good as high-quality patterns that benefit all pupils. Lesson planning and readying are critical to both the pupil ‘s and the instructor ‘s success. For optimal acquisition to take topographic point, be aftering must bring forth lessons that will enable the pupils to do connexions between their ain cognition and experiences, and the new information being taught ( Bouchard, 2005 ) . With careful planning, acquisition is made more meaningful and relevant by including appropriate motivation stuffs and activities that promote real-life application of constructs studied. In effectual direction for ELLs, concrete content aims that identify what pupils should cognize and be able to make should be the steering force for learning and larning. These aims should back up school-district and state-content criterions and larning results. Foe English scholars, content aims for each lesson need to be stated merely, orally and in authorship, and tied to specific grade degree criterions ( Echevarria & A ; Graves, 2007 ) . An effectual lesson program focuses on merchandises and larning straight related to these aims. While carefully be aftering and presenting content aims, sheltered direction instructors should besides integrate in their lesson programs techniques that support pupils ‘ linguistic communication development ( Short, 1999 ) . As with content aims, linguistic communication aim should be stated clearly and merely both orally and in composing. A broad assortment of linguistic communication aims can be planned harmonizing to the ends and activities in the lesson. Language objectives may concentrate on vocabulary development, reading comprehension accomplishments pattern, objectives that focal point on functional linguistic communication usage, higher-order thought accomplishments, every bit good as specific grammar accomplishments. Planing should besides affect careful consideration of the content constructs and grade-level content criterions to be taught. In sheltered schoolrooms, this involves guaranting that although the stuff may be adapted to run into the demands of ELLs, the content should non be diminished. When be aftering lessons around content constructs, the followers should be considered: ( 1 ) the pupils ‘ first linguistic communication literacy ( L1 ) , ( 2 ) their English proficiency degree ( L2 ) , ( 3 ) their reading ability, ( 4 ) the cultural and age rightness of the L2 stuffs, and ( 5 ) the trouble degree of the stuff to be read ( Gunderson, 1991 ) . Lesson readying should besides reflect the sum of background experience needed to larn and use the content constructs, and include ways to trip pupils ‘ anterior cognition. A reader ‘s scheme, or cognition of the universe, provides a footing for understanding, acquisition, and retrieving facts and thoughts presented. Students with cognition of a subject have better callback and are better able to lucubrate on facets of the subject than those who have limited cognition of subjects ( Hill, 2007 ) . Harrell & A ; Jordan ( 2004 ) have suggested that when readers lack the anterior cognition necessary to read, three major instructional intercessions need to be considered: ( 1 ) Teach vocabulary as a prereading measure ; ( 2 ) provide experiences ; and ( 3 ) present a conceptual model that will enable pupils to construct appropriate background for themselves. In sheltered direction lessons for ELLs, instructors select words that are critical for understanding the text or stuff and supply a assortment of ways for pupils to larn, retrieve, and utilize the words in meaningful contexts. There are multiple ways that background experiences can be created or ways that instructors can utilize the experiences that pupils bring. Connecting the pupils ‘ ain background experiences to the text, triping their background cognition and showing background information about the text to be read are all effectual ways of increasing comprehension for ELLs. The 3rd intercession, supplying ways for pupils to construct background cognition, can be accomplished by learning ELLs to utilize in writing organisers and other auxiliary stuffs. Effective SI involves the usage of many auxiliary stuffs that support the nucleus course of study and contextualize acquisition ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . Auxiliary stuffs provide a real-life context and enable ELL pupils to bridge anterior experiences with new larning. These attacks can be used throughout a lesson and supply ways for doing the text accessible for all pupils thereby accommodating them so that the content constructs are left integral ( Short, 1991 ) . Effective sheltered direction takes into history the alone features of English scholars. For ELLs, the instructor makes verbal communicating more comprehendible by consciously go toing to the pupils ‘ lingual demands. Making accommodations to speech so that the message to the pupils is apprehensible is referred to as comprehendible input ( Krashen, 1985 ) . In the SI schoolroom, instructors invariably modulate and adjust their address when learning ELLs to guarantee that the context is comprehendible. Concepts are taught utilizing a assortment of techniques, including mold, gestures, hands-on activities, and presentations, so that pupils understand and learn the content stuff. Effective SI instructors besides provide accounts of academic undertakings that make clear what pupils are expected to carry through and that promote pupil success ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . English scholars benefit from structured chances to utilize and pattern English in multiple scenes and across content countries. Harmonizing to Echevarria et Al. ( 2008 ) surveies have indicated, that in most schoolrooms, instructors dominate the lingual facets of the lesson, go forthing pupils badly limited in footings of chances to utilize linguistic communication in a assortment of ways. In the SI schoolroom, content categories are structured so that pupils are interacting in a collaborative probe of a organic structure of cognition. This SIOP component emphasizes the importance of equilibrating lingual turn-taking between the instructor and pupils, and among pupils. Students benefit from utilizing and practising English as a agency of showing their thoughts, sentiments, and replies. SI lessons are structured in ways that promote pupil treatment and they strive to supply a more balanced lingual exchange between pupils and their instructors. Teachers in Sheltered Instruction school rooms must make multiple chances for ELL pupils to utilize the English linguistic communication in order to spread out their verbal and written responses. ELL pupils will merely go proficient in English if they pattern the linguistic communication in reliable state of affairss. Frequent pattern reduces pupils ‘ anxiousness while take parting in category treatments and encourages them to take hazards in utilizing the linguistic communication ( Herrell et al. , 2004 ) . Integrating a figure of grouping constellations into lessons frequently facilitates utilizing English in ways that besides supports the lessons ‘ aims. Sheltered Direction categories are characterized by a assortment of grouping constructions, including single work, spouses, threes, little groups of four, concerted acquisition groups, and whole groups ( Hill, 2007 ) . Groups may besides change in that they may be homogenous or heterogenous by gender, linguistic communication proficiency, linguistic communication background, and/or ability. Using a assortment of grouping schemes helps to keep pupils ‘ involvement and increases their engagement in the acquisition procedure. It besides increases the opportunity that a pupil ‘s preferable manner of direction, or larning manner, will be matched ( Echevarria et al. , 2004 ) . Practice and application of freshly acquired accomplishments are needed for ELL pupils to guarantee command of content constructs. In the SI schoolroom, for pupils geting English, the demand to use the new information is of import because discoursing and making do abstract constructs concrete ( Echevarria et al. , 2007 ) . Application can happen in a figure of ways, such as bunch, utilizing in writing organisers, work outing jobs in concerted acquisition groups, composing in diaries, and treatment circles ( Bouchard, 2005 ) . These activities involve ELLs in relevant, meaningful application of what they are larning. For English scholars, application must besides include chances for them to pattern linguistic communication cognition in the schoolroom. Opportunities for societal interaction promote linguistic communication development can be achieved through treatment, working with spouses and little groups and describing out information orally and in authorship ( Bouchard, 2005 ) . Reading, composing, hearing, and talking are complex, cognitive linguistic communication processes that are interrelated and integrated ( Echevarria et al. , 2004 ) . Sheltered Instruction creates chances for ELLs to pattern and utilize all four spheres in an incorporate mode. ELLs benefit from multiple experiences that incorporate reading, promote interactions with others, supply the opportunity to listen to equals ‘ thoughts, and promote composing about what it is that they are larning. Besides, by learning through pupils ‘ preferred acquisition manners and encouraging pupils to pattern and use new cognition through multiple linguistic communication spheres, they will hold a more chances to develop their linguistic communication and content country cognition. Effective instructors of sheltered direction incorporate reappraisal and appraisal into their day-to-day lessons. In SI schoolrooms it is of import to find how good ELL pupils have understood and retained cardinal vocabulary and content constructs. Students, particularly those at the early phases of English proficiency, give considerable clip and energy into calculating out what the instructor is stating or the text is stating them at a basic degree ( Echevarria et al. , 2004 ) . Because of this, they are much less able to find which information among all they input they are having is most of import to retrieve. Teachers must hence take the clip to reexamine and sum up throughout the lesson non merely at the terminal as a wrap-up activity. SI helps pupils develop cardinal vocabulary by learning and so reexamining nomenclature and constructs through analogy and associating freshly learned words to other new words with the same construction or forms. Reviewing vocabulary besides involves pulling pupils ‘ attending to strain, parts of address, and sentence construction. Repeating and reenforcing linguistic communication forms helps ELLs become familiar with English constructions. In add-on, multiple exposures to identify vocabulary besides build acquaintance, assurance, and English proficiency. The more exposure pupils have to new words, particularly if the vocabulary is reinforced through multiple modes, the more likely they are to retrieve and utilize them ( Herrell et al. , 2004 ) . Students may pull a image to picture a construct or to retrieve a word. ELLs can show word significance through physical gestures or move out several words within the context of function drama. Activities that engage pupils in synergi stic pattern with words are effectual ways to advance academic linguistic communication development for ELL pupils ( Echevarria et al. , 2007 ) . Merely as it is of import to reexamine cardinal vocabulary throughout a lesson, it is besides indispensable that English scholars have cardinal content constructs reviewed during and at the terminal of a lesson ( Echavarria et al. , 2004 ) . Understandings are scaffolded in SI lessons when instructors stop and briefly sum up, along with the pupils ‘ engagement, the cardinal content covered to that point in the lesson. Students can besides sum up with spouses, write in diaries, or possibly list cardinal points on the board. For ELLs, it is of import to associate the reappraisal to the content aims so that the pupils stay focused on the indispensable content constructs of the lesson ( Echavarria et al. , 2008 ) . Appraisal occurs throughout a lesson to find if pupils are understanding and applying linguistic communication and content aims. Assessment must be linked to the direction and needs to aim the lesson aims. Merely as pupils need to cognize what the aims are, they need to be informed about how and what type of appraisals they will hold. Toward the terminal of the lesson, pupils ‘ progressed is assessed to find whether it is appropriate to travel on or to reexamine and reteach. Appraisals can be informal, reliable, multidimensional, and include multiple indexs that reflect pupil acquisition, accomplishment, and attitudes ( Hill, 2007 ) . As instructors in SI schoolrooms prepare for formal and informal appraisals, it is of import to observe that linguistic communication and content are intertwined in sheltered categories, dividing one from the other in the assessment procedure can be hard but necessary. When pupils demonstrate trouble or deficiency of public presentation, instructo rs need to find if it is the content that has non been mastered, or if it is a deficiency of English proficiency that is interfering with their acquisition and application of information. By be aftering multiple appraisals such as public presentation based undertakings, portfolios, diaries and undertakings, in add-on to more formalistic trials, pupils are given chances to show their cognition much more to the full. Assessment assortment is of import for ELLs because they are frequently unfamiliar with the type of standardised trials required in U.S. schools and may hold different testing and acquisition manners. Finally, to the extent possible, pupils should be evaluated on their personal advancement to find if acquisition has taken topographic point. In SI schoolrooms, where pupils frequently have different degrees of English linguistic communication proficiency, the value of multiple appraisals becomes evident. If instructors gather baseline informations on what their pupils know and can make with the content information before direction occurs and so what they know and can make afterwards, this can take to supportive feedback, and can supply for just and comprehensive judgements about pupil public presentation. In SI schoolrooms, there is a high degree of pupil battle and interaction with the instructor, with other pupils, and with text, which leads to lucubrate discourse and critical thought ( Echevarria et al. , 2008 ) . ELL pupils are explicitly taught functional linguistic communication accomplishments every bit good as how to negociate significance, confirm information, argue, persuade, and disagree. Teachers of SI introduce pupils to the schoolroom discourse community and demonstrate accomplishments such as taking bends in a conversation and disrupting courteously to inquire for elucidation. Through instructional conversation and meaningful activities, pupils pattern their English and content cognition. Sheltered direction, specifically SIOP, is characterized by careful attending to Ells typical 2nd linguistic communication development demands ( Echevarria et al. , 2007 ) . Sheltered direction plays a major function in a assortment of educational plan designs ( Genesee, 1999 ) . It may be portion of an ESL plan, a late-exit bilingual plan, a bipartisan bilingual submergence plan, a newcomer plan, or a foreign linguistic communication submergence plan. For pupils analyzing content-based ELL classs, SI frequently provides the span to the mainstream and the sum of SI provided should increase as pupils move toward passage out of these plans. Harmonizing to Echevarria et Al. ( 2008 ) any plan in which pupils are larning content through a non-native linguistic communication should utilize the sheltered direction attack. Mentions Bouchard, M. ( 2005 ) . Comprehension schemes for English linguistic communication scholars. New York: Scholastic Books. Echevarria, J. , & A ; Graves, A. ( 2007 ) . Sheltered content direction: Teaching English linguistic communication scholars with diverse disablements 3rd edition: Allyn and Bacon, 16-21, 56-72. Echevarria, J. , Vogt, M. , & A ; Short, D. ( 2008 ) . Making content comprehendible for English scholars: The SIOP theoretical account 3rd edition: Allyn and Bacon. Echevarria, J. , Vogt, M. , & A ; Short, D. ( 2004 ) . Making content comprehendible for English scholars: The SIOP theoretical account 2nd edition: Allyn and Bacon. Genesee, F. ( 1999 ) . Program options for linguistically diverse pupils. Educational Practice Report No.1. Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & A ; Excellence. Gunderson, L. ( 1991 ) . ESL literacy direction: A guidebook to theory and pattern. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice hall. Harrell, A. , & A ; Jordan, M. ( 2004 ) . 50 schemes for learning English linguistic communication scholars 2nd edition. Upper saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Mentions Hill, J. ( 2007 ) . A participant ‘s manual for schoolroom direction that works for English linguistic communication scholars. Denver, Col: Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning, 32-38. Krashen, S. ( 1985 ) . The input hypothesis: Issues and deductions. New York: Longman. National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. ( 2007a. ) . Adjustments for English linguistic communication scholars. Washington, DC: Writer. Retrieved July 16, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ncela.gwu.edu/accountability/ Short, D. ( 1999 ) . Integrating linguistic communication and content for effectual sheltered direction plans. New York: Teachers College Press. Retrieved July 8, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //tapestry.usf.edu/Short/resources.html Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages ( TESOL ) . ( 2007 ) . Meeting the challenges of content direction. Retrieved July 16, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //everythingesl.net/inservices/judith.php U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey. ( 2005 ) . Characteristics of people who talk a linguistic communication other than English at place. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts? _event= & A ; geo_id=01000US & A ; _geo

Al- Qaeda, Homeland Security, and US Patriot Act

Terrorism was viewed in the early days as an act of violence against a limited group of individuals. The acts then were consisted of bombing, kidnapping, killing prominent public officials, and others. The purpose of staging the terrorist act was to catch the government’s attention with the hope that the government may give in to the terrorists’ demands. The demands may be considered political, economical, or ideological. However, no matter the purpose is, the government usually do not heed the terrorist groups for they have been considered as a mere nuisance of the society that can easily be eradicated through military force.Additionally, terrorist groups were likened to a group of rebels operating as a group of limited members. The terrorist groups were not considered as a major threat to the nation’s security. But then, the horrifying 9/11 terrorist attack have drastically and clearly changed the world’s perception about terrorism. America, on the other hand, has greatly changed in its dealing with terrorism and terror groups. The International Community also realized that terrorism is a real threat to the world’s security. The remarkable 9/11 has indeed revealed the true face of terrorism.In response to the terrorism, America hunted all those responsible for the bombing by declaring an all out war against terrorism. Concomitant to the war is the enactment of all that would justify the government’s acts against terrorism. The government has enacted the U. S. Patriot Act and the Homeland Security. The president has rapidly heightened all measures to ensure security and to pursue all those responsible for the 9/11 and those who are connected with terrorism. Despite criticisms on the effect of the legislations to civil liberties, the government has been adamant on its stand to battle terrorism.The vengeance has eventually resulted to the war in Iraq and bombardment of Afghanistan. Likewise, the head of terrorism, Osama bin Laden and Sadam Hussein were apprehended and punished accordingly. Despite the declared death of the prominent architects of terrorism, the fight against terrorism still continues because of the belief that terrorism is still alive. The laws are also controlling within the nation. In line with this, the study will explore the organization of Al-Qaeda and at the same time present an evaluation of the counterterrorism laws. BodyThe name Al-Qaeda started to reverberate at the very onset of the 9/11 terrorist attack. The horrifying bombing of the very symbol of economic and military prowess of America, the World Trade Center, was rapidly linked to the Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden. Right after the attack, the government of the United States and foreign allies has united to condemn the unjustified act of terrorism. Al-Qaeda was believed to have been established in 1988. The Al-Qaeda was the by-product of the Muslims’ retaliation against the Soviet Union that occupied Afghanista n in 1979 through 1989 (Katzman).During the war against the Soviet Union, group of Muslims have started to recruit jihadis to fight against the Soviet Union. The recruiting and funding of the jihadis or fighters were initiated by Abdullah Azzam and his former student, Osama bin Laden, by founding the Maktab al-Khidamat which means Services Office (Katzman). This was also known as or Al Khifah. Notably, the Maktab al-Khidamat was believed to be the forerunner of Al-Qaeda. After the war with the Soviet Union, bin Laden and Abdullah Azzam established the Al-Qaeda in 1984 (Katzman). Al-Qaeda is an Arabic word which means â€Å"the base† (Katzman).Purposely, Al-Qaeda was established as a â€Å"rapid reaction force available to intervene wherever Muslim were perceived to be threatened† (Katzman). Al-Qaeda is also defined as â€Å"a secret, almost virtual organization, one that denies its own existence in order to remain in the shadows† (Atkins, 2004). The Al-Qaeda whi ch was jointly founded was eventually controlled by Osama bin Laden as a result of Abdullah Azzam’s assassination. Meanwhile, the assassination of Azzam was linked to Osama bin Laden. Remarkably, Al-Qaeda came to be known worldwide right after the 9/11 attack.The firmness of the organization of Al-Qaeda was believed to have been founded on ideology. There has been several controlling ideology of Al-Qaeda. Aside from being a religious duty, the Holy War has been viewed as necessary for the salvation of one’s soul and a means of defending the Muslim nation (Martin, 2006). Second, peace with the West is impossible and the only course of action in defending Islam is through violence (Martin, 2006). Third, the Al-Qaeda considers Muslim government as apostasies and is violently overthrown when they cooperate with the West (Martin, 2006).Fourth, the Al-Qaeda believes that only two sides exist and that no apocalyptic conflict between Islam and forces of evil exist (Martin, 200 6). From the time Al-Qaeda was founded in 1989, several terrorist activities were perpetuated in some other parts of the globe. In October 1993, the World Trade Center was attempted to be blown by Ramzi Ahmed Yusef (Katzman). In June 25, 1996, US Servicemen were killed while hundreds were wounded when a bomb exploded outside the Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia (Martin, 2006).Then in August 7, 1998, a bombing was also planned n the US Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Tanzania that caused almost 200 innocent people. The USS Cole was also damaged by suicide bombing in October 12, 2000 where 17 sailors were killed (Martin, 2006). The most damaging terrorist activity was the terrifying 9/11 attack. The 9/11 terrorist attack has totally crashed the World Trade Center in New York. The third plane was directed Pentagon killing hundreds of people and the fourth plane crashed in the Pennsylvania field (Martin, 2006). The 9/11 terrorist attack has drastically changed the world’s p erception on terrorism.Likewise, the attack has changed the world’s perception about Osama bin Laden. Primarily, the target of Al-Qaeda is the US government and the American people. America has been considered as the enemy of the Muslim nation because of the wars perpetrated against them. The economic embargo and the control over the world’s economy have been highly criticized by the Muslim nation. Eventually, the perception that the West is the enemy to Muslim nations has been shaped. Since the West is considered as the enemy, the Al-Qaeda’s target has been the American people.It is noteworthy that all the attacks have been perpetrated against US embassies and US nationals. Aside from the Americans, the terrorist also targeted citizens of Europe, Israel, Russia and other allies of America. Likewise, the 9/11 is a clear message or expression of hatred of terrorist against the Americans. In order to send a clear and strong message, the terrorist has implemented h igh-profile target. In addition, they adopted the suicide bombing as a means of carrying out their designs because it is simplified and a means of eliminating last minute flexibility (Mannes, 2004).In addition, they targeted high officials and use the media in order for the government not to undermine the target. Al-Qaeda also adopted the unconventional means of acquiring information through an extensive research and contacts of professionals. Internet has been essential for Al-Qaeda in penetrating the security, intelligence, and military organizations of other countries. Notably, the information the Al-Qaeda has gathered were used in planning their attacks in several countries. Additionally, Al-Qaeda’s primary goal was to obtain nuclear weapon (Mannes, 2004).The Al-Qaeda has successfully created their own bomb through the documents they have captured. Besides, professionals were also recruited and being turned into a radical in order to obtain materials from the outside. Int erestingly, the group was able to create a biological weapon through the extensive research done by Ayman Zawahari, a medical doctor (Mannes, 2004). The group also studied in order to create their own weapons. Another tactic of the Al-Qaeda in carrying out their mission is to at least impair the economy of other country.This has been done by terrifying tourists through kidnapping of foreign nationals visiting a particular nation. Furthermore, bombing of public places has also threatened tourists from visiting places occupied by terrorist groups. In assessing the Al-Qaeda organization, it can be observed that the group has been patient and enduring in order to succeed in their plans. The tactics and strategies adopted by the group can be considered to have been brilliantly drafted and carried out. However, the group was molded and blinded by extremism. On the part of the American government, the 9/11 attack cannot just be disregarded.Right after the attack, the administration of Bush formed the 9/11 Commission. Primarily, the Commission was directed to conduct an investigation on the bombing. Thereafter, the name of Al-Qaeda appeared. In response to the 9/11 attack, Bush administration has created a new federal office of Homeland Security nine days after the attack (Andryszewski, 2004). Pres. Bush also signed into law the U. S. Patriot Act, 45 days after the 9/11/. In addition, then President Bush also signed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 in November 22, 2002 (Andryszewski, 2004).All these were the result of the fear of another terrorist attack. Furthermore, these laws have essentially changed the essence of security in the country. Meanwhile, in order to identify the targets of the laws, the government found the need to define terrorism. Terrorism has been defined by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as â€Å"the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a Government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives† (Sauter and Carafano, 2005, p. 65).From the definition, it is clear that terrorism has been recognized to exist within the country targeting the citizens and outside the country targeting Americans. Hence, the counterterrorism laws have been designed to deal with terrorism within and outside America. One of the weapons of America in fighting terrorism is the Homeland Security which has been referred to; â€Å"consists of all military activities aimed at preparing for, protecting against, or managing the consequences of attacks on American soil, including the CONUS and U. S. territories and possessions.It includes all actions to safeguard the populace and its property, critical infrastructure, the government, and the military, its installations, and deploying forces† (Larson, et. al. , 2000). As to the military function of the Homeland Security, it has five major key areas of focus. One is the WMD domestic prepar edness and civil support (Larson, et. al). Second is continuity of government to ensure or restore civil authority (Larson, et. al. , 2000). Third is border and coastal defense which includes management of large-scale refugee flow and revention of WMD smuggling that may potentially create threat to security (Larson, et.al, 2000). Fourth is the continuation of military operation (Larson, et. al. , 2000). And, last is the national missile defense (Larson, et. al. , 2000). In domestic preparedness, the FBI and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) can request from the Department of Defense the cooperation of the federal Army (Larson, et. al, 2000). Likewise, the National Guard can also participate in maintaining civil authorities. Interestingly, military has an essential role in all areas of Homeland Security.In a broader scope, the Homeland Security is defined as â€Å"a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within United Sates, reduce America’s vulnerabi lity to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur† (Bolt, Colleta, and Shacklford, 2005, p. 433). In order to effectively fight terrorism, the administration of Bush has formed the Department of Homeland Security. The Department is composed of 22 federal departments, agencies, and bureaus from Central Intelligence Agency, FBI, DOD, and Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Andryszewski, 2004).These different agencies have been divided into Directorates with unique duties and jurisdiction. The first is the Border and Transportation Security Directorate which is responsible for ensuring the borders of America from terrorists coming from the outside of the country (Homeland Security, 2009). Aside from that, the Directorate ensures safety of land, sea, and air transportations. Immigration laws are also attached to the responsibility of the Directorate. The second is the Emergency Preparedness and Response Directorate which is tasked to coordina te with federal government in case of attack (Homeland Security, 2009).The third is Science and Technology Directorate responsible for biological, radiological, and chemical attacks, and nuclear weapons (Homeland Security, 2009). The last is the Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate tasked to gather intelligence and information in detecting terrorist activities (Homeland Security, 2009). Furthermore, it is also mandated to identify infrastructures which may be vulnerable to terrorism. An Undersecretary is assigned to administer each Directorate. The Undersecretary has been assigned a task toâ€Å"access, receive, and analyze law enforcement information from agencies of the Federal Government, State and local government agencies, and private sector entities, and to integrate such information to identify and assess the nature and scope of terrorist threat to the homeland; detect and identify threats of terrorism against United States; and understand such thre at in light of actual and potential vulnerabilities of the homeland† (Bolt, Colleta, and Shackelford, 2005, p. 433). Looking back into the definition, Homeland Security has three major concerns.First, prevent terrorist attacks in America (Fisher and Green, 2003). Second, reduce the vulnerability to terrorism of America (Fisher and Green, 2003). Third, minimize damages and recovery in case of attack (Fisher and Green, 2003). In preventing terrorist attack, the Department of Homeland Security has enhanced its intelligence and warning devices capable of tracking terrorist activities (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). In addition, national laws have been enacted to deal with domestic terrorism. Security within borders has also been intensified.Furthermore, transportation has been highly monitored to detect travelling terrorists. In the second duty of the Homeland Security, the Department is tasked to minimize vulnerability by curbing any possibility of bringing any weapon of mass destru ction into the country. This way, critical infrastructure and catastrophic terrorism are prevented (Sauter and Carafano, 2005). These kinds of terrorism involve attack through computer. Finally, the third duty is fulfilled by improving the capability of the Department in responding to a terrorist attack.Response may not only involve military defense but rather, it entails preparedness in rescuing lives of the victims and in containing the place attack to limit the number of victims. Another prevalent counterterrorism law of the government is the U. S. Patriot Act. Since the Act was abruptly enacted into law as it was signed 45 days after the 9/11 attack, the Act was perceived to be an effective means of curbing terrorism. Primarily, the U. S. Patriot Act was enacted to prevent terrorism but has effectively expanded the power of the law enforcement and intelligence agencies in carrying out their duties with regard to terrorism.There are basically four ways in carrying out the respons ibilities of the Act. First, the Act applies to fighting terrorism through the use of investigative tools previously available in fighting other forms of organized crime (Katzman). Second, the Act has eradicated any kind of barriers that hinders the free flow of information between and among law enforcement (Katzman). Third, the act validated the use of new technology and identifying new threats (Katzman). Last, the Act has created new terrorism-related crimes and increased penalties of crimes (Katzman).Under the first way, the tool that has been accepted or authorized includes electronic surveillances to detect terrorism in full-range and roving wiretaps to be authorized by a federal judge (Katzman). Through the roving wiretaps, the authorities are allowed to use electronic surveillance in response to â€Å"time-sensitive criminals or terrorist activities† (Purpura, 2007, p. 176). In addition, federal agents can also conduct investigations secretly under the authority of a v alid warrant obtained also secretly. The person being investigated is not also informed about the warrant.Through this, the federal agents would be able to identify agents, eliminate immediate threats, and coordinate the arrest of suspected individuals (Katzman). Furthermore, business records of individuals linked to terrorism can be examined through the order sought from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (Katzman). The information held by one federal agency can also be shared to other agency in order to effectively fight terrorism. Traditionally, each agency kept information confidential from other agencies in adherence to the agency’s independence.However, through the Patriot Act, the confidentiality of information or record is no longer controlling. In order to fully empower the federal agents in eradicating terrorism, jurisdiction as to warrant has been made general. Warrants can be obtained in any district and may be executed at any place being investigated for terrorist activities. Interestingly, cyber hacking has also been allowed in order to trace communications related to terrorism and at the same time tract hackers (Katzman).Furthermore, in order to fully prevent any terrorist activities and ensure the punishment of terrorists, the Act has increased penalties and added crimes that are categorized as terrorism. Among the crimes includes harboring any person linked to terrorism. Likewise, conspiracy crimes and offenses have been redefined and penalties of such have been increased. There has also been a specific penalty for mass transit attack and attacks using biological weapons. Finally, some terrorist crimes have no statute of limitation while some crimes have a lengthy.It is noteworthy that the Patriot Act has been criticized because of some acts that are obviously interfering with the rights of the citizens. Through the Act, the security in airports has been intensified and the law enforcers are even authorized to detain immigrants or suspected terrorist within the authorized time of detaining a person for questioning. Profiling has also been prevalent because Arabs, Muslims, and Asians were treated separately. Visas and passport of these people were also subjected to strict scrutiny. In addition, library records have been authorized by the Act to be reviewed by the federal agents.Furthermore, Emails can also be tracked by the federal agents on the mere basis of suspicion. More importantly, bank transactions suspected of funding a terrorist activity can be legally tracked by the federal agents. This has in fact changed the law on money laundering. Since the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security and U. S. Patriot Act, terrorism has been effectively deterred. The enhancement of security measures within borders and ports have hindered terrorist from pursuing their evil designs. In addition, several crimes such as smuggling have been prosecuted through the implementation of the counterterrorism law s.Several terrorist suspects have also been arrested through the active fulfillment of the federal agent of their duties. In line with this, suspects were thoroughly investigated due to the expansion of the court’s jurisdiction in trying and hearing terrorism cases. Remarkably, the laws have effectively brought back security within the nation. The fear of another terrorist attack has finally been eradicated. Despite criticisms, the effort of the government in curtailing terrorism has bear fruit. Notably, the people behind the 9/11 attack and other terrorist attacks have been prosecuted and punished accordingly.The very seat of terrorism has also been bombarded and paralyzed in order to prevent the rise of any sign of terrorism. The measures taken by the U. S. in fighting terrorism has also been adopted by other countries in their own fight to terrorism. The application of the counterterrorism laws has also reached policies of other countries. One of which is the Money Launder ing Law which has affected the bank transactions that passes through countries. Meanwhile, financial supports from suspicious donor have contributed to the success of terrorist activities.In order to avoid the free flow of the funds to support suspicious organizations, the government has strictly monitored bank transactions involving suspicious depositors and suspicious funds through the Patriot Act. Terrorist acts have also been effectively deterred at the very port of entry. The security equipments have been intensified and upgraded to detect any weapon that may be used to perpetrate a terrorist activity. Such equipments include scanners, surveillance cameras, and x-ray machines. The use of such equipments has been legally justified by the counterterrorism laws.Remarkably, all these measures have been effective in pacifying the nation from the threat of terrorism. Conclusion Traditionally, security can be acquired through the walls erected around houses. Terrorism, on the other ha nd, was considered as a petty problem yet a crime capable of being curtailed. More importantly, any act of terrorism can be disregarded by the government and responded through defensive military attack. However, the essence of security and terrorism has drastically changed after the 9/11 attack. Terrorism has become real and the injury it causes is unimaginable. Terrorism has also become the main enemy of the whole world.It also united the international community in curtailing and in eradicating any sign of it. Likewise, the 9/11 has angered America. The architecture of the attack also proved that Al-Qaeda can penetrate and destroy the security of America. The world’s perception of security has also drastically changed. America, on the other hand, has been quite paranoid about its security. However, it cannot be blamed because of the damaged caused by the 9/11 attack. The America viewed threat to have existed within and outside its territory. More importantly, the reality abo ut Al-Qaeda has finally been revealed through the bombing of twin towers.Al-Qaeda has indeed existed for a very long period. It has been living as a shadow that its existence was doubted by security forces. The organization has also been intelligent in carrying out its mission by extensively and safely planning the attacks. Likewise, the measures it has adopted in implementing the plans are sure yet deadly. But such cannot be considered difficult because of the ideology that has been instilled among the members. On the part of the victim of the attack, the countermeasures that have been adopted are the Homeland Security and U. S. Patriot Act.The Homeland Security was established as a means of centralizing the effort of the government in curbing terrorism. The Patriot Act, on the other hand, has enhanced the power of the federal agents in carrying their responsibilities with regard to terrorism. Any means that may be effective in tracking any sign of terrorism has been adopted and ap plied all throughout the country. Above all, the intelligence and security capabilities of the federal government have been heightened to effectively and efficiently eradicate terrorism. Both laws have been directed against terrorism.Upon the implementation of the counterterrorism laws, several changes have transpired. The enhancement of security has ensured the safety of America and American people. Several terrorist has also been arrested and punished accordingly. More importantly, the fear that has been instilled by the 9/11 attack among the people has been pacified. Peace and security has also been restored. Above all, no terrorist attacked against America followed. Hence, the measures adopted and implemented by the government has been effective and responded to the international problem. References Andryszewski, T. (2004). Terrorism in America.New York: Twenty-First Century Books Atkins, S. (2004). Encyclopedia of modern worldwide extremists and extremist groups New York: Green wood Publishing Group. Bolt, P. J. , Coletta, D. V. , and Shackelford, C. G. (2005). American defense policy. Johns Hopkins University Press Homeland Security. (2009). Department Components. Retrieved March 9, 2009, from http://www. dhs. gov/xabout/structure/ Katzman, K. (17 August 2005). Congressional Research Service. Al Qaeda: Profile and Threat Assessment. Retrieved March 9, 2009, from http://fas. org/sgp/crs/terror/RL33038. pdf Larson, E. V. , Peters, J. E. , Arroyo Center, and Rand Corporation.(2000). Preparing the U. S. Army for Homeland Security: Concepts, Issues, and Options. New York: Rand Corporation. Mannes, A. (2004). Profiles in terror: the guide to Middle East terrorist organizations. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. Martin, G. (2006). Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. New York: Sage Publications. Purpura, P. P. (2007). Terrorism and Homeland Security: An Introduction with Applications New York: Butterworth-Heinemann. Sauter, M. , and Caraf ano, J. J. (2005) Homeland Security: A Complete Guide to Understanding, Preventing, and Surviving Terrorism. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.